BOROBUDUR TAMPLE

Borobudur is a ninth century Mahayana Buddhist monument in Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia. The monument comprises six square platforms topped by three circular platforms, and is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. A main dome is located at the center of the top platform, and is surrounded by seventy-two Buddha statues seated inside perforated stupa.

The monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows a path circumambulating the monument while ascending to the top through the three levels of Buddhist cosmology, namely, Kamadhatu (the world of desire); Rupadhatu (the world of forms); and Arupadhatu (the world of formless). During the journey, the monument guides the pilgrims through a system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the wall and the balustrades.

Evidence suggests Borobudur was abandoned following the fourteenth century decline of Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in Java, and the Javanese conversion to Islam. It was rediscovered in 1814 by Sir Thomas Raffles, the British ruler of Java. Borobudur has since been preserved through several restorations. The largest restoration project was undertaken between 1975 and 1982 by the Indonesian government and UNESCO, following which the monument was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Borobudur is still used for pilgrimage, where once a year Buddhists in Indonesia celebrate Vesak at the monument, and Borobudur is Indonesia's single most visited tourist attraction.

Etymology

In Indonesian, temples are known as candi, thus "Borobudur Temple" is locally known as Candi Borobudur. The term candi is also used more loosely to describe any ancient structure, for example, gates and bathing structures. The origins of the name Borobudur however are unclear, although the original names of most ancient Indonesian temples are no longer known. The name 'Borobudur' was first written in the Sir Thomas Raffles book on Java history. Raffles wrote about a monument called borobudur, but there are no older documents suggesting the same name. The only old Javanese manuscript that hints at the monument as a holy Buddhist sanctuary is Nagarakertagama, written by Mpu Prapanca in 1365.

The name 'Bore-Budur', and thus 'BoroBudur', is thought to have been written by Raffles in English grammar to mean the nearby village of Bore; most candi are named after a nearby village. If it followed Javanese language, the monument should have been named 'BudurBoro'. Raffles also suggested that 'Budur' might correspond to the modern Javanese word Buda ('ancient') - i.e., 'ancient Boro'. However, another archaeologist suggests the second component of the name ('Budur') comes from Javanese term bhudhara (or mountain).


Location

Approximately 40 kilometers (25 mi) northwest of Yogyakarta, Borobudur is located in an elevated area between two twin volcanoes, Sundoro-Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two rivers, the Progo and the Elo. According to local myth, the area known as Kedu Plain is a Javanese 'sacred' place and has been dubbed 'the garden of Java' due to its high agricultural fertility. Besides Borobudur, there are other Buddhist and Hindu temples in the area, including the Prambanan temples compound. During the restoration in the early 1900s, it was discovered that three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are lined in one straight line position. It might be accidental, but the temples' alignment is in conjunction with a native folk tale that a long time ago, there was a brick-paved road from Borobudur to Mendut with walls on both sides. The three temples (Borobudur–Pawon–Mendut) have similar architecture and ornamentation derived from the same time period, which suggests that ritual relationship between the three temples, in order to have formed a sacred unity, must have existed, although exact ritual process is yet unknown.

Unlike other temples, which were built on a flat surface, Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill, 265 m (869 ft) above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the floor of the dried-out paleolake. The lake's existence was the subject of intense discussion among archaeologists in the twentieth century; Borobudur was thought to have been built on a lake shore or even floated on a lake. In 1931, a Dutch artist and a scholar of Hindu and Buddhist architecture, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp, developed a theory that Kedu Plain was once a lake and Borobudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on the lake. Lotus flowers are found in almost every Buddhist work of art, often serving as a throne for buddhas and base for stupas. The architecture of Borobudur itself suggests a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures in Borobudur symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly found in many Mahayana Buddhism (a school of Buddhism widely spread in the east Asia region) texts. Three circular platforms on the top are also thought to represent a lotus leaf. Nieuwenkamp's theory, however, was contested by many archaeologists because the natural environment surrounding the monument is a dry land.

Geologists, on the other hand, support Nieuwenkamp's view, pointing out clay sediments found near the site. A study of stratigraphy, sediment and pollen samples conducted in 2000 supports the existence of a paleolake environment near Borobudur, which tends to confirm Nieuwenkamp's theory. The lake area fluctuated with time and the study also proves that Borobudur was near the lake shore circa thirteenth and fourteenth century. River flows and volcanic activities shape the surrounding landscape, including the lake. One of the most active volcanoes in Indonesia, Mount Merapi, is in the direct vicinity of Borobudur and has been very active since the Pleistocene.


Approximately 40 kilometers (25 mi) northwest of Yogyakarta, Borobudur is located in an elevated area between two twin volcanoes, Sundoro-Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two rivers, the Progo and the Elo. According to local myth, the area known as Kedu Plain is a Javanese 'sacred' place and has been dubbed 'the garden of Java' due to its high agricultural fertility. Besides Borobudur, there are other Buddhist and Hindu temples in the area, including the Prambanan temples compound. During the restoration in the early 1900s, it was discovered that three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are lined in one straight line position. It might be accidental, but the temples' alignment is in conjunction with a native folk tale that a long time ago, there was a brick-paved road from Borobudur to Mendut with walls on both sides. The three temples (Borobudur–Pawon–Mendut) have similar architecture and ornamentation derived from the same time period, which suggests that ritual relationship between the three temples, in order to have formed a sacred unity, must have existed, although exact ritual process is yet unknown.

Unlike other temples, which were built on a flat surface, Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill, 265 m (869 ft) above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the floor of the dried-out paleolake. The lake's existence was the subject of intense discussion among archaeologists in the twentieth century; Borobudur was thought to have been built on a lake shore or even floated on a lake. In 1931, a Dutch artist and a scholar of Hindu and Buddhist architecture, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp, developed a theory that Kedu Plain was once a lake and Borobudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on the lake. Lotus flowers are found in almost every Buddhist work of art, often serving as a throne for buddhas and base for stupas. The architecture of Borobudur itself suggests a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures in Borobudur symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly found in many Mahayana Buddhism (a school of Buddhism widely spread in the east Asia region) texts. Three circular platforms on the top are also thought to represent a lotus leaf. Nieuwenkamp's theory, however, was contested by many archaeologists because the natural environment surrounding the monument is a dry land.

Geologists, on the other hand, support Nieuwenkamp's view, pointing out clay sediments found near the site. A study of stratigraphy, sediment and pollen samples conducted in 2000 supports the existence of a paleolake environment near Borobudur, which tends to confirm Nieuwenkamp's theory. The lake area fluctuated with time and the study also proves that Borobudur was near the lake shore circa thirteenth and fourteenth century. River flows and volcanic activities shape the surrounding landscape, including the lake. One of the most active volcanoes in Indonesia, Mount Merapi, is in the direct vicinity of Borobudur and has been very active since the Pleistocene.

Approximately 40 kilometers (25 mi) northwest of Yogyakarta, Borobudur is located in an elevated area between two twin volcanoes, Sundoro-Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two rivers, the Progo and the Elo. According to local myth, the area known as Kedu Plain is a Javanese 'sacred' place and has been dubbed 'the garden of Java' due to its high agricultural fertility. Besides Borobudur, there are other Buddhist and Hindu temples in the area, including the Prambanan temples compound. During the restoration in the early 1900s, it was discovered that three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are lined in one straight line position. It might be accidental, but the temples' alignment is in conjunction with a native folk tale that a long time ago, there was a brick-paved road from Borobudur to Mendut with walls on both sides. The three temples (Borobudur–Pawon–Mendut) have similar architecture and ornamentation derived from the same time period, which suggests that ritual relationship between the three temples, in order to have formed a sacred unity, must have existed, although exact ritual process is yet unknown.

Unlike other temples, which were built on a flat surface, Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill, 265 m (869 ft) above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the floor of the dried-out paleolake. The lake's existence was the subject of intense discussion among archaeologists in the twentieth century; Borobudur was thought to have been built on a lake shore or even floated on a lake. In 1931, a Dutch artist and a scholar of Hindu and Buddhist architecture, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp, developed a theory that Kedu Plain was once a lake and Borobudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on the lake. Lotus flowers are found in almost every Buddhist work of art, often serving as a throne for buddhas and base for stupas. The architecture of Borobudur itself suggests a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures in Borobudur symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly found in many Mahayana Buddhism (a school of Buddhism widely spread in the east Asia region) texts. Three circular platforms on the top are also thought to represent a lotus leaf. Nieuwenkamp's theory, however, was contested by many archaeologists because the natural environment surrounding the monument is a dry land.

Geologists, on the other hand, support Nieuwenkamp's view, pointing out clay sediments found near the site. A study of stratigraphy, sediment and pollen samples conducted in 2000 supports the existence of a paleolake environment near Borobudur, which tends to confirm Nieuwenkamp's theory. The lake area fluctuated with time and the study also proves that Borobudur was near the lake shore circa thirteenth and fourteenth century. River flows and volcanic activities shape the surrounding landscape, including the lake. One of the most active volcanoes in Indonesia, Mount Merapi, is in the direct vicinity of Borobudur and has been very active since the Pleistocene.

Historical

A white mist shrouds the plain and the first birdcalls across the valleys announce the imminent arrival of another dawn. Slowly the mist dissipates in the rising sun to reveal the spires and Buddhas that meditate in bliss and gradually the forms coalesce to unveil a temple that many who have seen it, consider to be the finest example of Buddhist architecture ever raised to the sky by man.

In the period 600 AD to 800 AD there was a golden age of temple construction throughout India, Ceylon and South East Asia. It was a time when Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished and men raised magnificent monuments to heaven in praise of their gods with a burst of frenetic activity of cultural expression and devotion. After their periods of glory they sank into oblivion,

either as a result of military conquest or natural disasters and their monuments were reclaimed by the jungle and lost to mankind for almost a thousand years.

One of the most spectacular of these is the Buddhist temple of Borobudur that lies in Eastern Java on the Kedu Plain. It is surrounded by an idyllic landscape of incomparable beauty of rice-terraced hills and overlooked by four volcanoes. The industrious subjects of the Sailendra dynasty built it over a period of 80 years in the ninth century who transformed a volcanic plug of basalt into a stepped pyramid with a base measuring 120 metres square and a height of 35 metres.

It was built to resemble a microcosm of the universe and its purpose was to provide a visual image of the teachings of the Buddha and show, in a practical manner, the steps through life that each person must follow to achieve enlightenment. The pilgrim to this shrine would first have been led around the base and shown the friezes, which illustrate the consequences of living in the World of Desire. In this realm ruled by Greed, Envy, and Ignorance, man is a slave to earthly desires and suffers from the illusions that are caused by these unfulfilled yearnings, a state regarded as hell by Buddhists. After completing this circuit, the pilgrim was then led in a clockwise fashion through five levels in a gradual ascension of the pyramid. Here he was shown how to conquer desire and attachment by viewing 1300 panelled friezes that illustrate the life of the Buddha and his previous incarnations. These levels were called the World of Form and correspond to the earthly realm in Buddhist symbology. The passages of both of these realms followed the square shape of the pyramid but above these two lay the World of Formlessness where the right-angled, heavily decorated passages gave way to a round unadorned summit where meditating Buddhas and saints sit in supreme bliss contemplating a view of exquisite beauty. In the centre a bell shaped tower, or stupa, points to heaven, a blissful realm beyond form and concept, known as Nirvana.

Encompassing the totality of existence with its representations of heaven, earth, and hell in this metaphor of stone, the monument was abandoned after a severe earthquake and a large eruption of the volcano Merapi in 1006 AD until it was rediscovered by the West during colonial times. One of the miracles, perhaps equalling the miracle of its construction and craftsmanship, is that the monument still exists and can be seen to this day. This area of Java is one of the most earthquake prone regions in the world as well as one of the most volcanic. From the top of the temple, the volcano Merapi is easily visible, still smoking to this day, having erupted on more than a few occasions during the last millennia.

Reliefs depicting the life of the Buddha cover the upper half of the main wall all around the first gallery of the monument, a total of 120 panels. These reliefs were carved to illustrate a text entitled the Lalitavistara, "The Unfolding of the Play." The above relief shows Sakyamuni having left the palace and dismissed his horse and groom, stands at the left beneath a parasol, bidding farewell to the supernatural beings who accompanied him.

The Dutch carried out some piecemeal reconstruction during colonial times but it was left to the Indonesian government to make a complete restoration with help from the United Nations in the seventies and eighties. This huge task has now been completed so that the temple is now in better shape than it has been since the major eruption of Merapi in 1006 AD. This architectural jewel is now conserved for the benefit of future generations and provides a wealth of information on the way of life 1200 years ago as well as preserving its spiritual message. The panels show a sophisticated and elegant society and are a pictorial history of the architecture, means of transport, dress, and customs of a race of people whose culture rose and fell a thousand years ago and who left this astounding monument as a testament to their skill and devotion.

Borobudur can truly be called one of the wonders of the world, one of those rare places where the compassionate, aesthetic beauty of mankind's nature can be glimpsed, a place where that centre of peace and stillness within us all can be felt, and a symbol of the imagination and industriousness of the human race.

PERBANKAN SYARIAH DI INDONESIA

PERBANKAN SYARIAH SERTA PERANANYA DALAM PENINGKATAN DAYA SAING DAN PEMBANGUNAN EKONOMI DI INDONESIA

Pengertian Perbankan Syariah

Seperti dituliskan di muka bahwa bank syariah, adalah bank yang sistem operasinya berdasarkan prisip-prinsip syariah (PP No. 72/1992). Jadi perbankan syariah adalah sitem perbankan yang dalam kegiatannya mendasarkan pada prinsip-prinsip syariah. Syariah adalah salah satu dari tiga pilar pokok dalam ajaran Islam. Tiga pilar pokok tersebut adalah:
1. Aqidah
2. Akhlak
3. Syariah


Aqidah. Aqidah adalah landasan tentang keyakinan atas keberadaan dan kekuasaan Allah SWT yang harus diyakini oleh setiap muslim dan menjadi dasar bagi setiap muslim dalam melakukan berbagai aktivitas di muka bumi ini. Manusia sebagai khlifah di muka bumi ini mendapatkan amanah dari Allah SWT untuk mengelola Dunia ini. Agar, dunia ini termasuk manusia selamat, maka dalam setiap perbuatannya, manusia harus selalu berpedoman hanya untuk mendapatkan keridhoan Allah SWT.

Akhlaq. Akhlak lebih mencerminkan perilaku atau kepribadian seseorang. Dalam kaitan ini seorang muslim dituntut untuk mempunyai akhlaqul karimah, yaitu perilaku yang dilandasi oleh nilai-nilai akidan dan syariah Islami. Berkaitan dengan akhlak ini ada hadis Nabi yang menyatakan “Tidaklah sekiranya Aku diutus kecuali untuk menjadikan akhlaqul karimah".

Syariah. Syariah adalah aktualisasi dari akidah, syariah mengatur kehidupan muslim baik dalam hubungan dengan Allah SWT (habluminAllah) maupun dalam hubungan antar manusia atau di bidang muamalah (hablumminannas). Hablumminannas pada berbagai bidang kehidupan sosial dan ekonomi yang mendasarkan pada nilai-nilai ketaqwaan kepada Allah SWT..

Ekonomi syariah. Ekonomi syariah adalah, ekonomi yang berlandaskan aturan dan etika syariah Islam. Dalam ekonomi syariah, harta dan uang ditempatkan sebagai sarana untuk mencapai tujuan, baik tujuan jangka pendek maupun tujuan jangka panjang.. Tujuan jangka pendek yaitu, untuk mendapatkan kehidupan yang layak di dunia ini dan jangka panjang adalah, untuk memperoleh keselamatan di akhirat. Kegiatan ekonomi adalah kegiatan muamalah (hubungan diantara manusia). Kegiatan tersebut harus mampu mendayagunakan sarana untuk mencapai tujuan, baik tujauan jangka pendek maupun tujuan jangka panjang..


Dalam ekonomi syariah, Islam melarang seseorang memperoleh harta melalui kegiatan yang merugikan orang lain. Islam juga melarang muslim melakukan-kegiatan-kegiatan ekonomi yang kerugiannya lebih besar dari manfaat yang akan diperoleh dari kegiatan-kegiatan tersebut. Islam juga mengatur distribusi kemakmuran dengan mencegah kemakmuran tersebut hanya dikuasai oleh sekelompok masyarakat.


Perbankan syariah. Prinsip-prinsip ekonomi syariah inilah yang menjadi dasar bagi perbankan syariah. Perbankan syariah dalam kegiatan ekonominya harus selalu berlandaskan pada aqidah, akhlakul kharimah dan syariah. Prinsip prinsip kebersamaan, transparansi dan lebih mementingkan azas manfaat adalah menjadi filosofi dasar bagi bisnis perbankan syariah. Dalam sistem perbankan syariah tidak dikenal adanya bunga. Bunga dianggap sebagai riba yang tidak akan menciptakan kesejahteraan, tetapi justru akan menimbulkan kerusakan, oleh karena itu dilarang. Dalam sistem perbankan syariah uang adalah alat tukar dan alat pembayaran yang sah, tetapi bukan alat untuk menimbun dan menghasilkan uang.


Sejarah Perbankan Syariah


Perkembangan Bank Syariah di Luar Negeri. Sistem perbankan syariah pertama kali dikenalkan di Mesir, pada saaat tersebut memang tidak menggunakan istilah-istilah Islam, karena ketakutan dari para pengelola perbankan akan tuduhan sebagai golongan fundamentalis. Perintis usaha perbankan syariah tersebut adalah Ahmad El Najjar. Ia melakukan eksperimen dengan membuka bank simpanan yang berbasis profit sharing di kota Mit Ghamr pada tahun 1963. Eksperimen ini berlangsung sampai dengan tahun 1967, pada saat tersebut sudah berdiri juga 9 bank di Mesir dengan konsep serupa. Bank-bank tersebut tidak memungut maupun menerima bunga dari jasa-jasa perbankan yang dihasilkannya. Usaha-usaha perbankan dilakukan secara langsung dalam bentuk partnership dan membagi keuntungan yang didapat dengan para penabung.


Pada tahun 1971, didirikan Nasir Social Bank. Bank ini mempunyai fungsi sebagai bank komersial, tetapi tetap merupakan bank yang bebas bunga. Walaupun dalam akte pendiriannya tidak disebutkan bahwa bank tersebut merupakan bank syariah.


Pada tahun 1974 didirikan Islamic Development Bank (IDB). Pendirian bank ini disponsori oleh negara-negara yang tergabung dalam Organisasi Konferensi Islam. IDB mempunyai fungsi utama sebagai bank antar pemerintah yang bertujuan untuk menyediakan dana untuk proyek pembangunan di negara-negara anggotanya. IDB juga menyediakan jasa finansial berbasis fee dan profit sharing untuk negara-negara yang secara eksplisit menyatakan diri berdasar pada syariah Islam.


Di beberapa negara lain, dalam tahun 1970-an, didirikanlah sejumlah bank berbasis Islam. Di Timur Tengah telah berdiri Dubai Islamic Bank (1975), Faisal Islamic Bank of Sudan (1977), Faisal Islamic Bank of Egypt (1977) serta Bahrain Islamic Bank (1979). Di Malaysia tahun 1983 berdiri Muslim Pilgrims Savings Corporation yang bertujuan membantu mereka yang ingin menabung untuk menunaikan ibadah haji.


Perkembangan bank syariah di tanah air. Proses perkembangan bank-bank syariah di negara-negara Islam berpengaruh ke Indonesia. Pada awal periode 1980 an, diskusi mengenai bank syariah sebagai pilar ekonomi Islam sudah banyak dilakukan. Para tokoh yang terlibat dalam diskusi tersebut misalnya, Karnaen A. Perwataatmadja, M. Dawam Raharjo, A.M. Saefuddin, M.Amin Azis dan lain-lain. Beberapa uji coba dalam skala yang relatif terbatas telah diwujudkan, di antaranya adalah Baitut Tamwil – Salman, Bandung yang sempat tumbuh mengesankan. Di Jakarta juga dibentuk lembaga serupa dalam bentuk koperasi, yakni koperasi Ridho Gusti.


Perkembangan bank syariah di tanah air mendapat pijakan setelah adanya deregulasi sektor perbankan tahun 1989. Bank syariah pertama didirikan pada tahun 1992, yaitu Bank Muamalat. Walaupun perkembangannya agak terlambat bila dibandingkan dengan negara-negara Islam lainnya, namun perbankan syariah di Indonesia menunjukkan perkembangan yang cukup pesat. Pada tahun 1992-1998 hanya ada satu unit bank syariah di Indonesia, namun pada tahun 1999 jumlahnya menjadi 3 unit, kemudian pada tahun 2000, bank syariah maupun bank konvensional yang unit usahanya di bidang syariah telah meningkat menjadi 6 unit.



Sedangkan jumlah BPRS (Bank Perkreditan Rakyat Syariah) sudah mencapai 86 unit. Jumlah ini diperkirakan masih akan terus bertambah pada masa yang akan datang, perkiraan ini didasarkan juga adanya fatwa MUI yang menyatakan bahwa bunga bank adalah riba..

Perbankan Syariah dan Pembangunan Ekonomi Berkelanjutan


Bank-bank syariah mempunyai peranan yang sangat penting dalam pembangunan ekonomi. Sebagaimana bank-bank konvensional bank-bank syariah mempunyai fungsi intermediary dari pihak-pihak yang memiliki dana dengan pihak-pihak yang memerlukan dana. Bahkan bank-bank yang menggunakan sistem syariah diharapkan dapat memberikan peran terhadap pembangunan ekonomi yang lebih baik dibandingkan dengan bank-bank konvensional, terutama dalam kaitannya dengan upaya bangsa ini untuk:
1. meningkatkan daya saing
2. meningkatkan investasi
3. meningkatkan pertumbuhan ekonomi

Peranan perbankan syariah dalam meningkatkan daya saing Sektor perbankan mempunyai peranan yang strategis dalam peningkatan daya saing ekonomi nasional. Sebagaimana bank konvensional, fungsi utama dari bank syariah adalah megumpulkan dana-dana dari masyarakat dan kemudian menyalurkan kembali ke masyarakat melalui investasi. Ada berbagai sumber dana yang dapat digali oleh bank syariah, di antaranya adalah yang berasal dari zakat, infak, sodaqah dan tabungan. Dana dari berbagai sumber tersebut kemudian secara syariah digunakan sebagai penyertaan untuk investasi baik pada aktiva tetap,maupun untuk memperkuat modal usaha bagi para pengusaha.


Penguatan modal pada saat ini menjadi sangat penting bagi usaha mikro, kecil dan menengah (UMKM) di Indonesia. Kekurangan modal untuk investasi dan modal usaha merupakan alasan yang sering mereka sampaikan mengapa mereka tidak mampu akses pada persaingan, di samping mereka juga menghadapi masalah-masalah lain seperti lemahnya manajemen usaha dan pemasaran. Sebagian besar UMKM mengeluh kan ketidak mampuan mereka untuk memperoleh modal yang relatif murah dengan persyaratan yang mudah. Bank-bank syariah diharapkan akan dapat menutup kesulitan UMKM tersebut. Dengan sistem profit sharing akan memberikan kesempatan bagi UMKM, untuk memperoleh modal sesuai dengan kemampuannya, karena sistem profit sharing hanya mewajibkan para pengguna modal untuk membayar kompensasi pada pemilik modal seuai dengan profit yang diperolehnya. Hal ini berbeda dengan sistem bunga yang mewajibkan pengguna modal untuk membayar kompensasi bagi pemilik modal berdasarkan persentasi dari jumlah modal yang digunakannya.


Peranan perbankan syariah dalam peningkatan investasi. Minat investasi di Indonesia relatif rendah. Rendahnya minat investasi tersebut terutama disebabkan relatif tingginya risiko investasi dan tingkat bunga. Tingkat bunga yang tinggi tentu menimbulkan dampak beban tetap tinggi yang harus ditanggung investor, apabila mereka menggunakan modal pinjaman. Pada saat investor melakukan pinjaman pada saat itu pula mereka akan menanggung beban tetap sebesar tingkat bunga dikalikan dengan total pinjamannya, walaupun mereka mengalami kerugian.


Perbankan syariah yang menganut sistem profit sharing, akan menghindarkan investor dari keharusan untuk membayar beban tetap mana kala mereka mengalami kerugian. Sistem ini juga akan memperkecil risiko yang harus ditanggung investor apabila ia mengalami kerugian dalam investasinya. Dalam sistem perbankan syariah tidak hanya dikenal profit sharing, tetapi juga risk sharing, artinya baik keuntungan maupun risiko ditanggung bersama-sama antara kreditur dan debitur. Sistem ini diharapkan akan lebih menarik bagi investor dibandingkan dengan sistem bunga yang dianut oleh bank-bank konvensional. Oleh karena itu dengan semakin berkembangnya bank-bank syariah di Indonesia, diharapkan akan meningkatkan minat investor untuk melakukan investasi, sehingga pertumbuhan ekonomi nasional juga akan meningkat.


Dalam sistem perbankan konvensional investasi dan tabungan selalu dikaitkan dengan tingkat bunga. Tingkat bunga sering merupakan penyebab perubahan investasi dan tabungan. Ketika bunga (bunga simpanan dan bunga pinjaman) tinggi maka kecenderungan tabungan akan meningkat, sementara investasi relatif turun. Begitu pula sebaliknya, ketika bunga rendah, maka tabungan akan menurun dan investasi akan meningkat. Dengan demikian dapat dikatakan bahwa motivasi dalam aktivitas tabungan dan investasi dalam bank konvensional didominasi oleh motif keuntungan.


Dalam perspektif ekonomi Islam, investasi bukanlah hanya mempersoalkan berapa keuntungan materi yang bisa didapatkan melalui aktivitas investasi, tapi ada beberapa faktor yang mendominasi motivasi investasi dalam Islam. Pertama, akibat implementasi mekanisme zakat maka asset produktif yang dimiliki seseorang pada jumlah tertentu (memenuhi batas nisab zakat) akan selalu dikenakan zakat. Hal ini s akan mendorong pemiliknya untuk mengelolanya melalui investasi. Dengan demikian melalui investasi tersebut pemilik asset memiliki potensi mempertahankan jumlah dan nilai assetnya. Berdasarkan argumentasi ini, aktivitas investasi pada dasarnya lebih dekat dengan prilaku individu (investor/muzakki) atas kekayaan atau asset mereka daripada prilaku individu atas simpanan mereka.


Berbeda dangan investasi dalam ekonomi konvensional, maka dalam ekonomi syariah perilaku investasi seharusnya menganut prinsip-prinsip sebagai berikut.



Pertama, dalam perekonomian syariah dana investasi lebih bersumber dari harta kekayaan/asset, sedangkan dalam perekonomian konvensional investasi berasal dari tabungan.


Kedua, aktivitas investasi lebih didasarkan pada motivasi sosial yaitu membantu sebagian masyarakat yang tidak memiliki modal namun memiliki kemampuan berupa keahlian (skill) dalam menjalankan usaha, baik dilakukan dengan musyarakah maupun dengan berbagi hasil (mudharabah). Jadi dapat dikatakan bahwa investasi syariah bukan hanya dipengaruhi oleh faktor keuntungan materi, tapi juga sangat dipengaruhi oleh faktor syariah (kepatuhan pada ketentuan syariah) dan faktor sosial.



Ketiga, investasi syariah adalah non-spekulasi (syariah), jadi tidak hanya mengejar keuntungan ekonomi semata, tetapi juga mendasarkan pada keinginan untuk membantu wira usaha yang kurang mempunyai kemampuan permodalan yang memadai.


Dengan demikian maka peranan perbankan syariah dalam investasi sangat dominan. Melalui instrumen-instrumen perbankan, bank-bank syariah dapat menjadi jembatan bagi pemilik modal dan investor untuk menggerakkan ekonomi riil dalam rangka mengakselerasi pertumbuhan ekonomi. Dalam segi aplikasi investasi di sektor riil prinsip-prinsip konvensional memang berbeda dengan prinsip-prinsip syariah. Berdasarkan prinsip-prinsip konvensional aktivitas investasi mengarah pada konsep bahwa investasi diasumsikan selalu untung. Investasi konvensional tidak mengakomodasi kemungkinan rugi. Berbeda dengan syariah, sistem ini menggunakan konsep bagi hasil dimana asumsi dasarnya adalah kefitrahan usaha yang dapat untung dan dapat pula rugi. Sementara itu permintaan investasi cenderung terdiri atas dua komponen,yaitu:


1. Komponen investasi autonomous (Io) yang tidak tergantung pada variabel lain, boleh jadi komponen ini ada akibat dari preferensi investor untuk berinvestasi dengan motif bersifat individual (keinginan diri sendiri - Iriil) dan sosial (amal shaleh – Iamal shaleh). Permintaan akan investasi sosial ini yang kemudian menimbulkan respon adanya penawaran proyek – proyek investasi bersifat sosial.


2. Investasi tergantung pada besar kecilnya ekspektasi keuntungan. Investasi ini muncul disebabkan oleh kecenderungan pemilik modal untuk mempertahankan (termasuk menambah) tingkat kekayaan yang mereka miliki. Oleh sebab itu, tindakan yang dilakukan dalam rangka mempertahankan tingkat kekayaanya, maka seorang investor/muzakki memiliki pilihan yaitu memberdayakan kekayaannya untuk memperoleh keuntungan atau menambah kekayaan mereka. Dengan kata lain penggunaan kekayaan investor/muzakki sebenarnya membuka peluang individu lain untuk memperoleh manfaat dari kekayaan mereka. Seperti mereka yang tidak memiliki modal tapi memiliki keahlian dalam berbagai usaha bisnis atau ekonomi. Dengan demikian, model permintaan investasi dapat digambarkan dengan persamaan sebagai berikut:


Id = Io + h(Er)



(1)keterangan: h = sensitifitas permintaan terhadap Er Io = Iriil + Iamal shaleh


Io = kW + lW; k + l = 1, atau



(2) keterangan: Iriil = kW Iamal Shaleh = lW k = bagian kekayaan yang diinvestasikan bermotif pribadi l = bagian kekayaan yang diinvestasikan bermotif sosial W = kekayaan (Wealth)


Pada sisi permintaan investasi, keikutsertaan kelompok pemilik modal tergantung pada keberadaan usaha yang telah ada dipasar, dimana mereka menempatkan sebagian modalnya (uang) pada usaha yang ada, sehingga besar – kecil jumlah investasi atau penanaman modal mereka pada proyek investasi tergantung pada besar-kecilnya ekspektasi keuntungan yang ada. Semakin besar ekspektasi keuntungan, maka akan semakin besar permintaan terhadap proyek investasi tersebut. Begitu juga sebaliknya, jika ekspektasi keuntungan kecil, maka permintaan proyek investasi pun akan turun. Seberapa besar penurunan permintaan investasi sangat tergantung pada tingkat sensitivitas permintaan tersebut terhadap pergerakan naik – turunnya ekspektasi keuntungan. Aktivitas investasi ini akan sangat menentukan aktivitas ekonomi riil di pasar barang dan jasa. Oleh karena aktivitas investasi merupakan aktivitas dominan dalam dalam menentukan pertumbuhan ekonomi nasional.

Peranan perbankan syariah dalam pertumbuhan ekonomi berkelanjutan. Kita mengetahui bahwa investasi adalah variabel utama yang menentukan pertumbuhan ekonomi suatu bangsa/wilayah (Samuelson, 2001). Rendahnya pertumbuhan ekonomi nasional sejak tahun 1997 terutama disebabkan oleh rendahnya minat investor untuk melakukan investasi di Indonesia. Dalam ekonomi makro ada dua variabel utama yang mempengaruhi pertumbuhan ekonomi suatu bangsa, yaitu:
1. Konsumsi masyarakat
2. Investasi

Besarnya konsumsi juga akan mempengaruhi tingkat pertumbuhan ekonomi nasional (Sadono Sukirno, 1994). Semakin tinggi konsumsi akan semakin tinggi permintaan terhadap barang dan jasa yang dihasilkan dunia usaha. Kondisi ini akan merangsang dunia usaha untuk meningkatkan aktivitas usahanya, sehingga akan memacu pertrumbuhan ekonomi. Namun pertumbuhan ekonomi yang disebabkan oleh besarnya konsumsi masyarakat tersebut tidak akan sustain (berkelanjutan), apabila tidak diikuti oleh peningkatan investasi yang memungkinkan dunia usaha meningkatkan kapasitasnya untuk mengimbangi peningkatan konsumsi dari dunia rumah tangga. Bahkan peningkatan pertumbuhan ekonomi yang disebabkan oleh peningkatan konsumsi tersebut akan cenderung menimbulkan inflasi. Oleh karena itu dapat dikatakan bahwa investasi adalah variabel yang sangat diperlukan dalam pembangunan ekonomi yang berkelanjutan, karena strategi pembangunan ekonomi melalui investasi akan memberikan dampak pertumbuhan ekonomi yang berkelanjutan.

KESIMPULAN

Beberapa kesimpulan yang dapat ditarik dari uraian di atas adalah sebagai berikut.

1. Sistem perbankan syariah, dibandingkan dengan sitem perbankan konvensional lebih memberikan kemudahan-kemudahan bagi investor domestik yang sebagian besar adalah golongan ekonomi lemah (UMKM). Sistem profit dan risk sharing dalam perbankan syariah menunujukan sistem kebersamaan antara pemilik dan penguna modal. Kebersamaan tersebut tercermin dalam prinsip apabila ada untung maka keuntungan tersebut dibagi bersama, demikian juga kalau rugi, kerugian tersebut juga ditanggung secara bersama.

2. Perbankan dengan sistem syariah ini diperkirakan akan berkembang pesat di masa yang akan datang. Hal ini didasarkan pada kenyataan bahwa sebagian besar masyarakat Indonesia adalah beragama Islam. Fatwa MUI yang menyatakan bahwa bunga bank adalah riba diperkirakan akan mengakselesari pesatnya pertumbuhan dari bank-bank syariah di Indonesia

3. Peranan perbankan syariah dalam peningkatan daya saing nasional akan terlihat dari peranannya terhadap penguatan sumber dana bagi UKM yang tenyata sangat lemah dalam permodalan dan kurang mempunyai akses terhadap sumber-sumber modal yang murah dan mudah.

4. Peranan perbankan syariah dalam pembangunan ekonomi yang berkelanjutan dapat dilihat melalui peranan yang sangat besar dari perbankan syariah dalam meningkatkan investasi. Kita mengetahui bahwa investasi adalah variabel utama bagi pembangunan berkelanjutan, maka besarnya peranan bank-bank syariah dalam meningkatkan investasi menunjukkan pula besarnya peranan bank syariah dalam pembangunan ekonomi yang berkelanjutan.

PIZZA TOWER

The Tower of Pisa (La Torre di Pisa) is the campanile, or freestanding bell tower, of the cathedral of the Italian city of Pisa. It is situated behind the Cathedral and it is the third structure by time in Pisa's Piazza del Duomo (Cathedral Square).

Although intended to stand vertically, the tower began leaning to the southeast soon after the onset of construction in 1173 due to a poorly laid foundation and loose substrate that has allowed the foundation to shift direction.

The height of the tower is 55.86 m (183.27 ft) from the ground on the lowest side and 56.70 m (186.02 ft) on the highest side. The width of the walls at the base is 4.09 m (13.42 ft) and at the top 2.48 m (8.14 ft). Its weight is estimated at 14,500 tonnes. The tower has 296 steps (the seventh floor has a different number of steps on the two sides, if you climb it on the north part you can count only 294 steps). The tower leans at an angle of 3.97 degrees. This means that the top of the tower is 3.9 meters from where it would stand if the tower were perfectly vertical.

Construction

The Tower of Pisa was a work of art, performed in three stages over a period of about 177 years. Construction of the first floor of the white marble campanile began on August 9, 1173, a period of military success and prosperity. This first floor is surrounded by pillars with classical capitals, leaning against blind arches.

The tower began to sink after construction progressed to the third floor in 1178. This was due to a mere three-meter foundation, set in weak, unstable subsoil. This means the design was flawed from the beginning. Construction was subsequently halted for almost a century, because the Pisans were almost continually engaged in battles with Genoa, Lucca and Florence. This allowed time for the underlying soil to settle. Otherwise, the tower would almost certainly have toppled. In 1198, clocks were temporarily installed on the third floor of the unfinished construction.

In 1272, construction resumed under Giovanni di Simone, architect of the Camposanto. In an effort to compensate for the tilt, the engineers built higher floors with one side taller than the other. This made the tower begin to lean in the other direction. Because of this, the tower is actually curved . Construction was halted again in 1284, when the Pisans were defeated by the Genoans in the Battle of Meloria.

The seventh floor was completed in 1319. The bell-chamber was not finally added until 1372. It was built by Tommaso di Andrea Pisano, who succeeded in harmonizing the Gothic elements of the bell-chamber with the Romanesque style of the tower. There are seven bells, one for each note of the musical scale. The largest one was installed in 1655.

After a phase (1990-2001) of structural strengthening, the tower is currently undergoing gradual surface restoration, in order to repair visual damage, mostly corrosion and blackening. These are particularly strong due to the tower's age and to its particular conditions with respect to wind and rain.

The Architect

There has been controversy about the real identity of the architect of the Leaning Tower of Pisa. For many years, the design was attributed to Guglielmo and Bonanno Pisano, a well-known 12th-Century resident artist of Pisa, famous for his bronze casting, particularly in the Pisa Duomo. Bonanno Pisano left Pisa in 1185 for Monreale, Sicily, only to come back and die in his home town. His sarcophagus was discovered at the foot of the tower in 1820. However recent studies seems to indicate Diotisalvi as the original architect, by construction affinities with his other works, like the Baptistery in Pisa.

EIFFEL TOWER

Built for the Universal Exhibition in celebration of the French Revolution centenary, the Eiffle Tower hoisting the flag to the top was inaugurated on March 31st 1889.In spite of big protests and harsh critics of Parisians and French intellectuals during its construction, the metal structure has become today the symbol of Paris, attracting over 6 million visitors each year.

Contractors : Gustave Eiffel was assisted by, among others, Maurice Koechlin and Emile Nouguier as engineers and Stephen Sauvestre as architect.Studies of the project began in 1884. In spite of the contraversy raised in the public opinion its construction however began in 1887 and finished 26 months later in 1889. The metal tower was, in the first place, planned to be demolished only after the Universal Exhibition of 1900. Radio transmission experiences carried out by the French military before the deadline of the destruction plan finally saved the tower.

Shape of the tower : At the time the tower was built many people were shocked by its daring shape. Gustave Eiffel was criticised for the design and accused of trying to create something artistic, or inartistic according to the viewer, without regard to engineering. Eiffel and his engineers, as renowned bridge builders however, understood the importance of wind forces and knew that if they were going to build the tallest structure in the world.
The shape of the tower was therefore determined by mathematical calculation involving wind resistance. Several theories of this mathematical calculation have been proposed over the years, the most recent is a nonlinear integral differential equation based on counterbalancing the wind pressure on any point on the tower with the tension between the construction elements at that point. That shape is exponential.
The mass of the tower is inferior to the mass of air contained in a cylinder at the tower's dimensions : 10 100 tons vs 10 265 tons.
The 10 100 tons radiate on 4 pillars so that the weight per square centimeters on the ground would be that of a 2m tall lady weighting 80kg on a pair of high heels.

Materials and weight : puddled iron erected with a crossbar system made of 18.038 pieces and fixed with 2.500.000 rivets. The structure of Gustave Eiffel's masterpiece is very airy and resistent to the wind. Notwithstanding its robust and stout structure it only weighs 7,300 tons.

Height : From the ground to the flagpole its height was 312,27 meters in 1889, whereas it is today, 324 meters high with antennae. Different French television companies install their antennae right on top of the tower.Owned by Paris local government and managed by a French private company "Société Nouvelle d'Exploitation de la Tour Eiffel", this structure is maintained and renovated every 7 years with 50 tons of paint executed by workers who master acrobatic and climbing sports.

Lighting : The "metal lady" is illuminated by 352 projectors of 1000 watts and twinkles every 30 minutes in the evening with 20.000 bulbs and 800 fairy lights.The Eiffel Tower twinklings were at first made to celebrate the new 2000 year arrival. But Parisians, inspite of electricity excess costs, could not be deprived of this marvel. The company in charge of the Eiffel Tower had to rethink of a new way to keep the tower twinkling. After more than a year of not functionning, the Eiffel Tower got its twinklings back with an inaugural celebration on June 21th, 2003 at 11.20 pm. The new twicklings are even more impressive than the previous ones. The current lighting system by immersely reducing the electric power consumption, offered the Eiffel Tower the chance of twinkling another extra ten years. The evening celebration welcoming this brand-newly decorated Iron Lady was full of emotion. The event was greated by well-known national and international artists. This special happening was also greated with splendid and huge fireworks. There were more than 200,000 people to welcome this very special show. All were amazed by such a splendor.To make the tower look alive and more elegant, 4 floodlights equipped with 6.000 watt xenon bulbs keep rotating on the top.

Number of steps : 1665 steps for sportive visitors. Transparent lifts go up to the 2nd floor where you can find all sorts of souvenir shops.